The island
The presence of the Knights
Hospitaller on Rhodes for over two centuries determined
its course through history and shaped its character to such an extent that in
Greek popular thinking it has become known as the Island
of the Knights. However, Rhodes’ rich past,
splendid art, monuments and robust culture go back much further than the flourishing
medieval age of chivalry. There is definitive evidence of settlement from
prehistoric times.
The island was colonised by the Mycenaeans and subsequently
by the Dorians from the Argolis, who spread
into the south-west Aegean in the late 10th
century. It was this that led to the creation of the Dorian Hexapolis, a major
confederation of Dorian cities in the area, involving the three Rhodian cities
of Ialyssos, Lindos, and Kamiros, and the cities of Cnidos, Bodrum and Kos, with the temple
of Triopian Apollo at
Cnidos as their common religious centre. The Archaic era was a period of
progress and prosperity for Rhodes. The growth
of shipping extended trade relations, resulting in a thriving economy.
Archaeological finds from Kamiros attest to contacts with Asia Minor, Egypt
and mainland Greece,
while Rhodian vessels found in numerous places around the Mediterranean Basin
confirm the range of commercial destinations. This picture of prosperity is backed
up by the minting of coins, and the establishment of colonies, such as that set
up by the people of Lindos at Gela
in Sicily in
the first half of the 7th century BC. A turning point in the island’s history came
in 408-407 BC, when Kamiros, Ialyssos and Lindos founded the city of Rhodes as a new common
political and residential centre. Famed for its Hippodamian urban plan, the
island’s namesake flourished in Hellenistic times thanks to its wealth, power
and culture, reigning supreme among the cities of Rhodes.
With its five ports, the island played a key role as a trading post throughout
antiquity. Its power and culture were symbolized by one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world: the colossal statue of the god Helios, sculpted by Chares,
which dominated the sea entrance to the city. Rhodes
lost its prestige and experienced a downturn in late antiquity,
traumatized by events such as plundering by Cassius in 42 BC, a powerful
earthquake in 155 AD and invasion by the Goths in 269. In 297 it was
incorporated into the Province of the Islands
(Provincia Insularum); after the capital of the Roman
Empire was moved to Constantinople,
the island appears to have regained some of its earlier strength due to its key
position on the sea route linking the capital to the eastern and southern
provinces. However, earthquakes in 344 and 515 undermined smooth recovery.Christianity spread early to Rhodes, as it did
throughout the Aegean, and the island’s bishop
participated in the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325.
The general prosperity of the
early Christian period on the islands is attested on Rhodes
by the building of large houses and basilicas. The large three nave
basilica unearthed to the east of the ancient citadel in Rhodes
town is one of the characteristic monuments of this era: measuring more than 60
metres in length, it has a three-aisled transept and is sumptuously
decorated with frescoes and wall and floor mosaics. Archaeological excavations
have brought to light two more basilicas in the medieval city, and
confirmed the existence of a significant Early Byzantine castle with a moat,
parts of a rampart and a walled citadel, on the site of the later Palace of
the Grand Magister. All the archaeological evidence suggests that the Early
Christian settlement was substantial, extending beyond the walled area. From
the 7th century onwards Rhodes shared the fate
of the Aegean islands, entering a period of stagnation, fear and decline due to
the appearance of the Arab peril. The Arabs raided and looted the islands,
including Rhodes, but failed to interrupt trade.
Late 7th and 8th century lead seals used by customs staff (kommerkarioi) on Rhodes indicate the island’s important role in Eastern Mediterranean commerce. In the mid-Byzantine
period Rhodes came into contact with the West.
In 1082 Alexius I Comnenus granted the Venetians permission to establish a
staging post there, thus consolidating the city's link with Western European
culture and rendering it a prominent trading hub once more. The robust economy
is reflected in intensive coin circulation during the 11th and 12th centuries,
as well as in artistic activity. The 11th century church of Our Lady
of the Castle served as the Orthodox Christian cathedral in Byzantine times, but
was converted into a Catholic cathedral after the Knights Hospitaller invaded Rhodes. The church
of Agios Fanourios dates
to the same period, as do the frescoes in the catholicon of the Archangel
Michael in Tharri.
After Constantinople fell
to the Franks in 1204, Rhodes was declared
independent by its commander, Leo Gavalas. The flow of westerners to the island
increased, paving the way for the arrival of the Knights Hospitaller. Having
lost their foothold in Palestinian territory after the fall of Jerusalem and the conquest of Acre in 1291, the Knights of the Order of St. John occupied Rhodes in 1309. This heralded an era of brilliance
for
the island and led to the development of Rhodes
town’s distinctive medieval character, which it retains to the present day. It
was in this period that Rhodes emerged as one
of the leading seaports in Europe. The
population grew and became increasingly multicultural, thanks to Greek, Frank
and Jewish merchants, travellers and soldiers. Economic vigour went hand in
hand with the growth of both shipping and small industry. The impact of all
these changes was reflected in society in the emergence of a stratified class
structure, with the wealthy nobles and the poor populace at either end. The
arts flourished over the centuries the knights were on the island.
New urban
planning and extensive building activity drastically altered the urban landscape.
The Byzantine tripartite division of the city was maintained as follows: (a)
the Command House or Palace of the Grand Magister was built on the
highest north-western point of the city; (b) the Castle or Collachium, in the
northern part of city, where the other important public and private
buildings were. These included the Inns of Tongues in
the Street of the Knights, the church
of Our Lady of the
Castle, St John's,
the hospital, the archdiocese, the knights’ quarter, the armoury and the naval
station. (c) The Chora (Burgus), located in the southern part of the city. The
paved Street of the Knights, measuring 200m in length and 6m wide, one of the
best preserved medieval streets, led from the Palace of the Grand Magister
to the harbour. The centre of commercial activity was the Magna et Communis
Platea or Macellus Rhodi in the market; it was a long street 50m in width that crossed
the city from west to east. The capture of Rhodes
by the Ottomans in 1522 brought the island’s golden era to an end. The city
changed appearance once again, as Greek neighbourhoods were created outside the
walls, existing public buildings were modified and several new ones erected, most
of which were mosques and baths. In 1912 Rhodes
and the entire Dodecanese came under Italian
rule. The Italians implemented an extensive program to restore monuments from
the time of the Knights, in some cases demolishing the Ottoman additions. They
also erected utility buildings and modernized the city. The island was
incorporated into the Greek state in 1948. Well preserved monuments created by
many cultures over time stand side by side in the medieval city of Rhodes, which was added
to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988 as an outstanding architectural ensemble.
Glossary (7)
Paleo-Christian (early Christian) era:
in Byzantine history, the period that typically starts in 330 AD, when Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to his newly-founded city of Constantinople, and ends with the death of Justinian in 565.
basilica:
type of large church, divided internally into three or more naves. The central nave was usually covered by a raised roof with windows that illuminated the space.
aisles or naves:
corridors formed inside a church between the colonnades of basilicas. Their number varies from three to nine, with the central one wider and taller.
transept:
aisle built perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a church; an elongated transverse space formed between the nave and the eastern wall of the temple, in front of the apse.
wall paintings or murals:
Painted scenes on a wall or ceiling surface.
mosaic:
patterns or
images composed of small, colored tesserae. Mosaic
decoration can
be applied
to all the surfaces
of a building:
floor, walls or ceiling.
catholicon:
the main church
of
a monastery.
As a rule
it
was the most imposing one, located in the center of the courtyard
Information Texts (4)
The island:
Down the centuries, the
beauty of the Aegean landscape and the bountiful natural resources on Kos contributed to its emergence as an island with a long
history and rich cultural heritage perhaps disproportionate to its small size.
The island’s present-day character owes much to the material witnesses of the
past: the classical antiquities, the plethora of early Christian monuments and
the architecture and urban layout from the Italian occupation.
Lying between Karpathos and Nissiros, Kos
is the third largest island in the Dodecanese.
The first signs of human presence and activity have been confirmed by
archaeological finds from the Neolithic settlement in Aspri Petra cave, and the
fortified Early Bronze Age settlement on Serai Hill in the island capital.
Burials rich in ceramic grave goods bear witness to the presence of Mycenaeans
on the island, backed up by a reference to Kos
in the Iliad, in the catalogue of cities
that took part in the expedition against Troy.
Historic times found Kos participating alongside
Cnidos, Halicarnassus
and three Rhodian cities in the Doric Hexapolis, a federation of cities settled
by the Dorians of the Peloponnese. The island subsequently
passed into Persian hands, even taking part in their campaign against Greek
cities.
After the Persians were
defeated in 478 BC, Kos became part of the
Delian League. At that time it would appear that the island capital was
Astypalaia, on the site of present-day Kefalos. Excavations at Astypalaia have
revealed temples dating to the 5th century BC, dedicated to Demeter, Asclepius
and Omonoia, as well as a theatre and a wall. In 366 BC, while under the
control of Mausolus, the famed ruler of Caria,
the island's oldest villages were settled and new capital was founded at
Meropis, on the site of the present-day capital. Despite discord over its
political allegiance vis-à-vis the successor kingdoms of Alexander's empire, in
Hellenistic times Kos and its large temples
(including the panhellenic sanctuary of Asclepius) served as a major religious
centre. This was also the heyday of Ancient Alasarna, a settlement on the site
of what is now Kardamena.
From its inception in the 2nd
century BC, the Roman period on Kos was
hallmarked by high taxation, elaborate public works projects and modifications
and additions to the ancient temples. Major events in the first Christian
centuries include the arrival of the Apostle Paul in to preach Christianity in
57 AD, and a powerful earthquake in 142. In the reign of Emperor Diocletian
(284-305), Kos was incorporated into the
Kingdom of Caria (Regio Cariae) and the
Province of the Islands (Provincia Insularum).
As Christianity spread in
the Aegean, Kos
was organized into a diocese relatively early on - sources confirm that bishops
Meliphron and Julian took part in the Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451) respectively.
The beginning of the Early Christian era on Kos
can apparently be traced to another powerful earthquake, in 469, which caused
severe damage across the island and resulted in many ancient temples being
abandoned. The impressive number of basilicas built in the 5th and 6th
century is not only indicative of the predominance of Christianity, but also of
contemporary wealth and prosperity. To date, eighteen basilicas and
settlements have been excavated in three rural areas (Mastichari, Kardamena and
Kefalos) and at least sixteen others have been located; in Kos
town, excavations have brought to light private buildings with elaborate mosaic
floors. Together with the production of marble architectural members and
mosaics, small scale installations such as pottery kilns and glass workshops
give an indication of the inhabitants’ commercial activities, attesting to the vitality
of both town and country. The previously held view that the flourishing Christian
era on Kos was brought to an end by an
earthquake in 554 is gradually being abandoned, since recent excavation data have
revealed that life continued until the mid-7th century, when the Arabs raided
the island in 654/655. From the early 5th to the early 7th century Kos suffered raids by the Vandals, Isaurians, Onogurs,
Bulgarians and probably the Avar Slavs. The 7th century was marked
by assault and plundering by the Persians of Chosroes II and the Arabs of Moab.
Very little is known of the period up until the mid-11th century, the so-called
"Dark Ages" of systematic Arab raids on the Aegean islands, which
resulted in dwindling settlements and a general climate of fear and uncertainty.
Existing information notes the administrative integration of Kos
into the Theme of Kibyrrhaiotai. Following the Byzantine defeat at
Manzikert (1071), and Seljuk and Turkmen raids in Asia
Minor, Kos played host to
refugees, including Christodoulos Latrenus, the monk who later founded the
Monastery of St John the Theologian on Patmos.
A chrysobull issued by Emperor Alexius I Comnenus granted the monk two areas
“[…] the one known locally as Kastelon, and that called Pilés’ place”, where Christodoulos founded the Monastery of
the Virgin Mary, also known as Monastery of Our Lady of Kastrianon (“the Castle
dwellers”), and erected Palaio Pyli Castle on the hill.
In the 12th century the Venetians
laid claim to Kos. From 1124 to 1126 the
island suffered raids after John II Comnenus refused to grant them privileges
in the islands; a chrysobull issued by Emperor Alexius III Angelus in 1198 finally
ratified Venetian economic privileges in parts of the empire including Kos. After the fall of Constantinople
to the Franks in 1204, the Partitio Romaniae assigned Kos
to the rule of the Latin emperor, though there is no written record of a Latin
diocese being established. The island was briefly recaptured by John Vatatzes
in 1224, and then passed back and forth between the Byzantines and the
Venetians before coming under the more permanent control of the latter in 1284.
The Knights Hospitaller
arrived in Kos between 1306 and1309. Another
round of exchanges between the Byzantines, the Venetians and the Hospitallers ended
in a lasting victory for the Knights from 1337 onwards. In the 14th century
they proceeded to shore up the island’s defences. Among other things they
repaired the existing walls at Antimachia and Kos
town, and even erected a strong perimeter wall with bastions around Kos Castle,
also known as Nerzantzia
Castle.
In the first half of the
15th century the island was plagued by attack from the Egyptians (1440 and
1444). From the fall of Constantinople to
Sultan Mehmed II up until the end of the century it was the turn of the
Ottomans to launch repeated raids on the island. The most significant assault
was in 1457, when a siege on the castle at Antimachia resulted in the
countryside being razed and depopulated. A major earthquake in 1493 rounded off
the distressing picture of dereliction. Kos
was surrendered to the Ottomans under Suleiman the Magnificent three decades
later, in 1523, a year after the Knights Hospitaller capitulated on Rhodes. Now subject to poll tax, Kos
lost its fertile lands, which were granted to the Ottomans as fiefs or vakufs.
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
The palace of the Grand Magister:
The Grand Master's Palace
(Castello and Palazzo) is beyond doubt the most emblematic work of Gothic
architecture in Greece,
and a symbol
of the medieval town of Rhodes.
A building of imposing dimensions, it dominates the highest point on the north-western
side of the castle, where the Street of the Knights ends. It was built in the
ancient citadel, on the site of the ancient temple dedicated to the sun god
Helios. The palace was first founded at the same time as the Byzantine walls,
which became necessary because of repeated Arab-Persian raids from the mid-7th
century on. The Knights of St. John erected the Castello in the 14th
century to house the city’s military and administrative centre. Under Ottoman rule,
from 1522 onwards, the palace functioned as a prison and was left to fall into
decay. It was almost entirely demolished by an explosion in an adjacent
gunpowder magazine in 1865, and owes its present form to extensive restoration
projects carried out by the Italians in the 1930's. It is a tower-shaped
rectangular building (approx. 80 x 75m) with a large paved courtyard (approx. 50
x 40m) surrounded by galleries. One of the palace’s most distinctive features
is the main gate to the south, flanked by two tall, strong round towers. The
ground floor had auxiliary rooms, while the four wings of the first floor had over
eighty or more rooms, as well as halls decorated with mosaics and frescoes. The
most impressive rooms are the central council room, the refectory and the chapel
dedicated to St. Catherine. Since 1993 the Medieval Museum of Rhodes has been
housed in seven halls in the south-west wing of the Palace of the Grand
Masters. The permanent exhibition, entitled "Rhodes from Early Christian Times
to the Ottoman Conquest (1522)", is divided into seven rooms on the
following subjects: (a) Introduction, from Ancient to Christian Ideology; (b)
Economy; (c) Social Life; (d) Defence and Administration; (e) Intellectual
Life; (f and g) Worship and Art.
Alexius I Comnenus:
Emperor
of Byzantium
from 1081 to 1118, founder of the Comnenian dynasty. Son of John Comnenus and
Anna Dalassene, he was originally a general in the imperial army. Using this
position he led a revolt supported by the army and the aristocracy, which ended
in the capture of Constantinople and his
ascension to the imperial throne on 1 April 1081. The empire Alexius inherited was at a very
critical juncture: the aristocracy were in revolt, the Seljuks had taken over
much of Asia Minor and the capital and the Danubian
provinces were under attack. The raids continued at greater or lesser intensity
over several years. To address these difficulties, Alexius turned to the West,
and signed peace treaties with the Venetians and the Germans. With regard to domestic affairs, he attempted to reform and revitalize
the economy and trade so as to stop deflation of the Byzantine currency, and overhauled
the administration. The first Crusade took place during his reign. Alexius exercised
diplomacy in dealing with the waves of crusaders, providing them with vessels to
cross over to Asia Minor. After extensive
negotiations, the crusader leaders agreed to hand back any lands they might
capture that had previously belonged to the Byzantine
Empire. However, Alexius failed to prevent them capture Antioch and Jerusalem. He died in
1118.
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